Welcome to your Reading and Writing – Module 2
While researching memory, a psychology student gathered these notes: • Short-term memory holds approximately 7 items for 20-30 seconds • Working memory actively manipulates information for complex tasks • Long-term memory has virtually unlimited capacity and duration • Sleep consolidates memories by replaying neural patterns • Emotion enhances memory formation through amygdala activation • Stress hormones can impair memory retrieval • Spaced repetition improves long-term retention over massed practice The student wants to provide evidence-based study recommendations. Which choice most effectively uses information from the notes to accomplish this goal?
Philosophers debating consciousness confront the "hard problem"—explaining why physical brain processes produce subjective experience at all. We can map neural correlates of perception, emotion, and thought, yet explaining why these processes feel like anything remains elusive. Some theorists propose consciousness is fundamental to reality rather than emergent from matter. Others argue the problem is misconceived and will dissolve with better neuroscience. __________ positions share the acknowledgment that consciousness presents unique explanatory challenges absent from other scientific questions. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
Political scientists analyzing voter turnout have identified numerous factors influencing participation, from registration requirements to polling place accessibility. Research consistently shows that even minor inconveniences—longer travel distances, reduced voting hours, complicated registration processes—significantly decrease turnout, particularly among lower-income voters. __________ policies designed to increase convenience, such as automatic registration, early voting, and mail-in ballots, tend to boost participation across demographic groups. Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?
Geologists studying the Chicxulub crater in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula have confirmed that an asteroid impact 66 million years ago triggered the mass extinction ending the age of dinosaurs. The impact generated tsunamis, earthquakes, and ejected debris that blocked sunlight for months, causing global cooling and vegetation collapse. While many species perished, the catastrophe created ecological opportunities for survivors. Mammals, previously small and nocturnal, diversified rapidly into niches formerly occupied by dinosaurs, eventually producing the lineage leading to __________. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
The following text is from Oscar Wilde's 1890 novel "The Picture of Dorian Gray." The studio was filled with the rich odour of roses, and when the light summer wind stirred amidst the trees of the garden, there came through the open door the heavy scent of the lilac, or the more delicate perfume of the pink-flowering thorn. From the corner of the divan of Persian saddle-bags on which he was lying, smoking, as was his custom, innumerable cigarettes, Lord Henry Wotton could just catch the gleam of the honey-sweet and honey-coloured blossoms of a laburnum. What effect does Wilde create through his detailed sensory descriptions?
Ethnobotanists working with Indigenous communities have documented traditional plant medicines that later proved pharmaceutically valuable. The rosy periwinkle from Madagascar, used traditionally for diabetes treatment, yielded compounds now used in childhood leukemia therapy. Willow bark, long used for pain relief, provided the basis for aspirin. These examples highlight the importance of protecting both biodiversity and traditional knowledge, as the loss of either eliminates potential sources of future __________. Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word?
Microbiologists have discovered that the human gut contains trillions of bacteria constituting a complex ecosystem essential to health. These microorganisms aid digestion, synthesize vitamins, train the immune system, and may even influence mood and cognition through the gut-brain axis. Disruption of this microbiome through antibiotics, poor diet, or stress correlates with conditions from inflammatory bowel disease to depression. __________ research increasingly views the microbiome as an organ system requiring cultivation rather than merely a collection of germs requiring elimination. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
Behavioral scientists have documented "social loafing"—the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in groups than when working alone. This phenomenon appears across cultures and tasks, from rope-pulling experiments to brainstorming sessions. Researchers attribute social loafing to diffused responsibility and reduced accountability in group settings. Understanding this tendency has practical implications for workplace design, suggesting that clearly assigned individual tasks within group projects may yield greater __________ than ambiguous collective assignments. Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word?
Developmental psychologists have documented that children acquire language through remarkably similar stages across cultures, progressing from babbling through single words to complex sentences within consistent age ranges. This universality suggests biological constraints on language development that unfold according to maturational timetables. __________ the specific language children acquire depends entirely on environmental exposure, demonstrating that nature and nurture interact in shaping this distinctly human capacity. Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?
Economists studying inequality distinguish between "wealth"—accumulated assets minus liabilities—and "income"—money received over time. This distinction matters because wealth generates additional income through investments while providing security against economic shocks. Two families with identical incomes but vastly different wealth levels face fundamentally different economic realities and opportunities. Policies addressing only income inequality while ignoring wealth concentration may therefore prove __________ in reducing overall economic stratification. Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word?
Oceanographers studying thermohaline circulation—the global conveyor belt of ocean currents driven by temperature and salinity differences—warn that climate change may disrupt this system. Melting Arctic ice adds freshwater that reduces surface water density, potentially slowing the sinking motion that drives circulation. Paleoclimate records show abrupt circulation changes coincided with rapid climate shifts in Earth's past. The potential __________ of disrupting this planetary-scale system includes altered weather patterns affecting billions of people. Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word?
Anthropologists studying gift-giving across cultures have observed that presents create social obligations extending beyond the objects themselves. Marcel Mauss argued that gifts are never truly free—they establish relationships requiring reciprocity that binds communities together over time. In market economies, transactions complete obligations, but in gift economies, exchanges __________ ongoing social relationships. This distinction helps explain why transforming gifts into commodities often feels inappropriate or even offensive. Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word?
Astronomers have discovered that most galaxies harbor supermassive black holes at their centers, with masses millions or billions times greater than our Sun. These cosmic engines influence galactic evolution through jets of radiation and matter that can suppress or trigger star formation across vast distances. The relationship between black hole mass and host galaxy properties suggests their development is intimately connected. Understanding this co-evolution represents one of contemporary __________ most active research frontiers. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
The prisoner's dilemma, a foundational concept in game theory, illustrates how rational individual choices can produce collectively irrational outcomes. Two suspects, unable to communicate, must each decide whether to confess or remain silent. If both stay silent, both receive light sentences. If both confess, both receive moderate sentences. But if one confesses while the other remains silent, the confessor goes free while the silent partner receives the harshest punishment. __________ rational self-interest drives both to confess, producing worse outcomes than mutual cooperation would achieve. Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?
Historians studying medieval trade routes have documented how the Silk Road connected civilizations across Asia, the Middle East, and Europe for centuries. Beyond silk, merchants transported spices, precious metals, and manufactured goods across thousands of miles. __________ importance extended beyond commerce: religions, technologies, and ideas traveled alongside commodities, facilitating cultural exchange that shaped civilizations on multiple continents. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
Cognitive scientists studying expertise have found that masters in fields from chess to medicine don't simply know more facts—they organize knowledge differently. Experts perceive meaningful patterns invisible to novices, chunk information into manageable units, and rapidly retrieve relevant knowledge from memory. A chess master sees strategic positions where beginners see individual pieces. This qualitative difference in knowledge organization suggests expertise develops through deliberate practice that restructures understanding rather than simply __________ information. Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word?
The following text is from Fyodor Dostoevsky's 1866 novel "Crime and Punishment." On an exceptionally hot evening early in July a young man came out of the garret in which he lodged in S. Place and walked slowly, as though in hesitation, towards K. bridge. He had successfully avoided meeting his landlady on the staircase. His garret was under the roof of a high, five-storied house and was more like a cupboard than a room. What atmosphere does Dostoevsky establish through these opening details?
Archaeologists studying the Nazca Lines—massive geoglyphs etched into Peru's desert plateau—have long debated their purpose. Some researchers propose the lines served astronomical functions, aligning with celestial events. Others suggest they marked underground water sources vital to this arid region. More recent analysis indicates the lines may have been pilgrimage routes, walked during religious ceremonies. __________ the Nazca people created these designs remains uncertain, their scale and preservation continue to fascinate researchers and tourists alike. Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?
The domestication of fire, occurring perhaps one million years ago, fundamentally transformed human evolution. Cooking increased caloric availability and reduced chewing time, enabling the development of smaller jaws and larger brains. Fire extended productive hours beyond daylight, facilitated social bonding around hearths, and provided protection from predators. This single technological innovation thus catalyzed changes in human anatomy, social organization, and __________ expansion across diverse environments. Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word?
Linguists studying language endangerment estimate that half of the world's approximately 7,000 languages will disappear within this century. When a language dies, humanity loses not only a communication system but also unique grammatical structures, oral histories, and ecological knowledge encoded in vocabulary. Indigenous languages often contain precise terms for local plants, animals, and environmental phenomena that dominant languages lack. Language preservation efforts therefore represent not merely cultural conservation but protection of irreplaceable __________ about the natural world. Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word?
Psychologists studying creativity have challenged the notion that creative breakthroughs emerge suddenly from unconscious inspiration. Research tracking problem-solving processes reveals that "aha moments" typically follow extensive conscious preparation and deliberate experimentation. Creative individuals cultivate broad knowledge bases, expose themselves to diverse influences, and systematically explore possibilities before insights emerge. __________ findings suggest creativity can be developed through practice rather than being an innate gift possessed by a fortunate few. Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
Sociologists examining social media's effects on political discourse have documented increasing polarization across democratic societies. Platform algorithms promoting engagement tend to amplify emotionally provocative content and create filter bubbles limiting exposure to opposing viewpoints. Users increasingly inhabit separate informational universes with conflicting facts and interpretations. __________ designing interventions to reduce polarization while preserving free expression presents significant challenges for researchers and policymakers alike. Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?
Marine conservationists have documented that marine protected areas—ocean regions where fishing and extraction are limited—can restore depleted fish populations and damaged ecosystems. Within protected boundaries, fish grow larger, reproduce more successfully, and spill over into adjacent waters, benefiting fisheries beyond reserve borders. __________ creating effective marine reserves requires balancing conservation goals with fishing community livelihoods, as poorly designed restrictions can displace rather than reduce harmful practices. Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?
Deep-sea anglerfish inhabit one of Earth's most extreme environments—the midnight zone where sunlight never penetrates. To attract prey in complete darkness, female anglerfish have evolved bioluminescent lures that dangle from their foreheads like fishing rods. Males of some species have taken an even more unusual evolutionary path, permanently fusing to females and degenerating into parasitic appendages that provide nothing but sperm. This reproductive strategy, while bizarre by terrestrial standards, represents a successful __________ to the challenges of finding mates in vast, lightless waters. Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word?
While researching artificial intelligence, a computer science student gathered these notes: • Machine learning systems require massive datasets for training • AI image generators learned from billions of copyrighted images scraped from the internet • Artists and photographers did not consent to their work being used for training • AI-generated images can replicate specific artists' styles • Copyright law does not clearly address AI training on copyrighted material • Some jurisdictions are considering legislation requiring consent or compensation • Tech companies argue training on public data constitutes fair use The student wants to explain the copyright controversy surrounding AI image generation. Which choice most effectively uses information from the notes to accomplish this goal?
While researching urban transportation, a city planning student compiled these notes: • Traffic congestion costs U.S. drivers $87 billion annually in wasted fuel and time • Public transit reduces per-capita carbon emissions by 45% compared to driving • Bike lanes increase cycling rates while decreasing accidents • Mixed-use zoning reduces average trip distances • Ride-sharing services may increase overall vehicle miles traveled • Autonomous vehicles could reduce or increase congestion depending on policy • Remote work decreased commute trips by 30% during the pandemic The student wants to argue for policies reducing automobile dependence. Which choice most effectively uses information from the notes to accomplish this goal?
The following text is from Charlotte Brontë's 1847 novel "Jane Eyre." There was no possibility of taking a walk that day. We had been wandering, indeed, in the leafless shrubbery an hour in the morning; but since dinner the cold winter wind had brought with it clouds so sombre, and a rain so penetrating, that further outdoor exercise was now out of the question. I was glad of it: I never liked long walks, especially on chilly afternoons. What does the narrator's reaction to being kept indoors reveal about her character?
